The Mediation Effects of COVID Vaccine Anxiety, Safety, and Fear on the Relationships between COVID-19 Threat and Efficacy Levels with Parents' Intent to Vaccinate Children

Given the updated, ongoing recommendations for the COVID vaccine series and booster for children ages 6 months and older yet vaccine coverage remaining at less than 50% among children, it is critical for public health communicators to understand sources of vaccine hesitance among parents. A national survey of parents identifies the mediating effects of vaccine anxiety, safety, and fear on the relationships between COVID-19 threat and efficacy with behavioral intentions to vaccinate. Anxiety mediated the relationships between both threat and efficacy with parents'behavioral intentions to vaccinate their children. Vaccine anxiety, safety, and fear mediated parents' decisions to vaccinate themselves. Theoretical and applied implications are reviewed. Copyright 2023 Authors.

Danger control and fear control during public health emergencies: Considering the roles of fear and hope in the EPPM across different levels of trust.

Public health emergencies pose considerable threats to global health and safety. The control of these emergencies requires the efforts of healthcare professionals and calls for the public to take protective actions. The present study not only puts fear back in the extended parallel process model (EPPM) but also considers another similarly productive emotion: hope. We examined the mechanisms behind the effects of four cognitive perceptions on protective actions (i.e., danger control) and information avoidance (i.e., fear control). A national online survey was conducted with 1676 participants during the outbreak of COVID-19 in China from February 1 to 29, 2020. The results revealed that perceived severity and susceptibility could lead to fear, positively affecting protective actions. On the other hand, perceived response efficacy and self-efficacy induced hope, which was positively associated with protective actions but negatively associated with information avoidance. Furthermore, the mechanisms behind the relationships among cognitions, emotions, and behaviors varied across levels of trust in healthcare systems.

Predicting college students' COVID-19 vaccination behavior: an application of the extended parallel process model.

The two studies reported in the paper examined (1) the extended parallel process model's (EPPM; Witte 1992) ability to predict and explain college students' COVID-19 vaccination behavior, and (2) the EPPM-related reasons for college students' COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy. Study 1 was a longitudinal study that measured the EPPM constructs at Time 1 and COVID-19 vaccine behavior two months later at Time 2. For danger control, results indicate that perceived threat and perceived efficacy positively predicted intentions and that intentions positively predicted behavior. For fear control, results indicate that perceived threat positively predicted fear, that perceived efficacy did not predict fear, and that fear negatively predicted defensive avoidance, reactance, and fatalism. Study 2 was a cross-sectional survey that assessed EPPM-related reasons for vaccine hesitancy. Results indicate that the main reasons for vaccine hesitancy were related to response efficacy (i.e., participants were concerned about the safety and effectiveness of the vaccine). The theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.

Using the extended parallel process model (EPPM) to explore US consumers' dining behaviors during COVID-19

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to examine consumers' dining behaviors and explore their decision-making process when dining out during the COVID-19 pandemic.Design/methodology/approachBased on the extended parallel process model (EPPM) and the related literature, a conceptual model was developed and tested. This study conducted an online survey with 351 responses. In addition, a series of statistical analyses, including descriptive analyses and path analyses, were conducted to analyze the associations among key constructs in the proposed model.FindingsThe findings of this study confirmed the pragmatic utility of applying EPPM in a hospitality management context. The findings of this study also outline the different nature between the participants' enactment of self-protective measures and dining out activities. Lastly, while consumers are hesitant about dining out, the results showed that consumers' dining behaviors are directly related to their personality trait of sensation-seeking.Research limitations/implicationsThis study was delimited to a cross-sectional design and self-reported data. Such information may provide insights into individuals' decision-making and behaviors related to dining in a COVID-19 context. In addition, this study only includes US samples, while future studies can extend this study by including samples from different countries and cultural backgrounds.Originality/valueThis study adopts an interdisciplinary approach, which derives from tourism and hospitality management and public health. As a result, the findings of this study not only identify the major influencers affecting consumers' dining behavior but also help contextualize a public health model and contribute to the tourism and hospitality management literature.

When Cigarette Smoking Meets COVID-19: How the Two Types of Threat and Efficacy Perceptions Interactively Predict Danger Control and Fear Control Processes.

Growing evidence indicates that communicating the combined risk of smoking and COVID-19 encourages smoking cessation. Guided by the Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM), we examined how perceived threats of smoking and COVID-19 independently and interactively predicted danger control responses (i.e., quit intentions and COVID-19-protective behavioral intentions) and fear control responses (i.e., fear and fatalism). We also explored the direct and interactive impacts of perceived efficacy of quitting smoking and COVID-protective behaviors on message outcomes. Structural equation modeling results (N = 747 U.S. adults who smoke) indicated that the perceived efficacy of COVID-protective behaviors positively predicted quit intentions. Higher perceived threat of COVID-19 and greater quitting efficacy predicted higher quit intentions directly and indirectly via fear. As perceived COVID-protective efficacy increased, the positive association between perceived quitting efficacy and quit intentions also increased. Smoking-related threat and efficacy perceptions did not predict COVID-protective behavioral intentions. This study added to EPPM by considering how threat and efficacy perceptions deriving from two different yet closely related risks affect protective behaviors. Thus, combining multiple threats in a single message might be a promising strategy to motivate smoking cessation amid the pandemic.

Families coping with the COVID-19 pandemic: Risk perceptions associated with preventive intention across three generations of Chinese families

While generational differences in coping with the threat of the global COVID-19 crisis were widely discussed in Western societies, a more careful look from the family level is needed in collectivistic societies like China. This study conducted an online survey among three generations of Chinese families between late January and late March in 2020. The study examined 1380 individuals (college students [G1]: N = 762, M-age = 20.47 + 2.45, 78.1% female;parents [G2]: N = 386, M-age = 47.64 + 4.08, 51.3% female;grandparents [G3]: N = 232, M-age = 73.50 + 8.57, 54.3% female) and their cognitions, affect, and preventive intentions toward COVID-19. The investigation ultimately yielded 226 pairs of family data. The results showed generational differences in the above variables. Perceived severity showed a significant total effect on preventive intention for all three generations, and perceived societal risk showed a significant (total) effect on preventive intention only for G3. Perceived severity was linked to preventive intentions through negative affect for those with lower self-efficacy in G1 and G2. Perceived societal risk was also linked to preventive intention through negative affect for those with low self-efficacy for G2. Moreover, cluster analyses identified three types of families with different epidemic coping patterns: stand-by families (48.23%), precautious families (35.40%), and insensitive families (16.37%). This research provides theoretical and practical implications for understanding the disparities in epidemic prevention between different generations and families. Findings show insights for improving the government's communication strategies.

Impact of Social Media, Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM) on the Intention to Stay at Home during the COVID-19 Pandemic

Considering how communities perceive the threat and risks of COVID-19, it is essential to examine how emotional regulation stimulated through intrinsic and extrinsic incentive mechanisms via social media can reinforce ‘Stay at home’ intentions. The conceptual framework was developed using the elements of the Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM). A self-reported questionnaire was used to measure individuals’ intention to stay at home during the pandemic based on the perceived locus of causality as a part of self-determination theory. The empirical research was conducted on a sample of 306 USA respondents. The study results indicate that both components of the EPPM—efficacy and threat—positively affect ‘stay at home’ intentions. Moreover, a positive effect of efficacy on threats was found, as was a moderating effect of threats on the relationship between efficacy and the intention to stay at home. Meanwhile, the influence of social media exposure on threats and behavioral intentions was not significant. People are likely to stay at home as a preventive measure during COVID-19 if there is enough threats and efficacy. However, the abundance of information and opinions in social media can lead to a decreased perceived threat and might disrupt the acceptance of preventive actions.

Using the extended parallel process model (EPPM) to explore US consumers' dining behaviors during COVID-19

Purpose The purpose of this study was to examine consumers' dining behaviors and explore their decision-making process when dining out during the COVID-19 pandemic. Design/methodology/approach Based on the extended parallel process model (EPPM) and the related literature, a conceptual model was developed and tested. This study conducted an online survey with 351 responses. In addition, a series of statistical analyses, including descriptive analyses and path analyses, were conducted to analyze the associations among key constructs in the proposed model. Findings The findings of this study confirmed the pragmatic utility of applying EPPM in a hospitality management context. The findings of this study also outline the different nature between the participants' enactment of self-protective measures and dining out activities. Lastly, while consumers are hesitant about dining out, the results showed that consumers' dining behaviors are directly related to their personality trait of sensation-seeking. Research limitations/implications This study was delimited to a cross-sectional design and self-reported data. Such information may provide insights into individuals' decision-making and behaviors related to dining in a COVID-19 context. In addition, this study only includes US samples, while future studies can extend this study by including samples from different countries and cultural backgrounds. Originality/value This study adopts an interdisciplinary approach, which derives from tourism and hospitality management and public health. As a result, the findings of this study not only identify the major influencers affecting consumers' dining behavior but also help contextualize a public health model and contribute to the tourism and hospitality management literature.

Testing Extended Parallel Processing Model in the Korean COVID-19 Context: Effect of Moral Intuitions as Moderators.

Despite the possible social implications of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), previous studies of the extended parallel processing model (EPPM) in the context of COVID-19 overlooked the emotional aspects when processing fear-inducing COVID-19-related messages. Drawing upon the moral foundation theory (MFT), this study aimed to (a) apply EPPM in the Korean COVID-19 context, (b) introduce MFT and explain why moral intuitions can be related to the processing of COVID-19 messages, and (c) examine the moderating role of moral intuitions in the EPPM model. Based on the theoretical backgrounds, this study tested EPPM hypotheses and also tested whether moral intuition can moderate the relationship between perceived self-efficacy, perceived threat, fear of COVID-19, and health compliance behavioral intention. This study conducted an online survey using measurements of perceived self-efficacy, perceived threat, MFQ-20, fear of COVID, and health compliance. Our study showed three main findings. First, our study found the main effects of (a) self-efficacy on health compliance behavioral intention and (b) perceived threat on health compliance behavioral intention. Second, our study found that morality moderated the main effects of self-efficacy or perceived threat and also moderated EPPM interaction on fear of COVID. Third, the moderation of morality in the relationship between self-efficacy and health compliance behavioral intention showed that health compliance intention decreased as morality increased. Our findings suggest that people can consider COVID-19 as a social and moral issue that involves protecting others.

The Threat of COVID-19 and Job Insecurity Impact on Depression and Anxiety: An Empirical Study in the USA.

As the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic causes a general concern regarding the overall mental health of employees worldwide, policymakers across nations are taking precautions for curtailing and scaling down dispersion of the coronavirus. In this study, we conceptualized a framework capturing recurring troublesome elements of mental states such as depression and general anxiety, assessing them by applying standard clinical inventory. The study explores the extent to which danger control and fear control under the Extended Parallel Processing Model (EPPM) threat impact job insecurity, with uncertainty phenomenon causing afflicting effect on the experiential nature of depression heightened by anxiety. With the aim to explore the job insecurity relationship with anxiety and depression, and measure the impact of EPPM threat, an empirical study was conducted in the United States on a sample of 347 white collar employees. Demographic data, EPPM threat, job insecurity, anxiety, and depression data were collected via a standardized questionnaire during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. The questionnaire consisting of multi-item scales was distributed online. All the scale items were evaluated on a 5-point Likert scale. SEM software AMOS version 23 was used to perform confirmatory factor analysis with maximum likelihood estimation. In the structural model, relationships between the threat of COVID-19, job insecurity, anxiety, and depression were assessed. The findings of the study suggest that job insecurity has a significant impact on depression and anxiety, whereas the threat of COVID-19 has a significant impact on depression. Mediating effects of job insecurity and EPPM threat impact on anxiety were not established in the study. The study contributes to the apprehension of the repercussions of major environmental disruptions on normal human functioning, and it investigates the effects of self-reported protective behaviors on risk perception. The study also explains the underlying mechanisms of coping behavior as possible antecedents to mental disorders. When subjected to stressful events, heightened psychological arousal causes physical and psychological challenges of affected employees to manifest as behavioral issues.

Integrating health behavior theories to predict American's intention to receive a COVID-19 vaccine.

OBJECTIVE: Integrating constructs from three prominent health behavior theories including the extended parallel process model, the health belief model, and the theory of planned behavior, this study seeks to identify sociopsychological factors that influenced American's intention to receive a COVID-19 vaccine. METHOD: An online survey was delivered to a U.S. sample (N = 934), assessing the influences of risk perception and fear associated with COVID-19, beliefs about and attitudes toward COVID-19 vaccines, self-efficacy, social and psychological contexts, and demographic characteristics on people's intention to get COVID-19 vaccines. RESULTS: Most respondents intended to get vaccinated. However, they tended to underestimate their risks of contracting COVID-19. Disease exposure led to higher uptake intent via the mediation of fear. Safety concerns negatively influenced vaccination intention, while perceived community benefits were positively associated with vaccination intention. Positive attitudes toward vaccines and recent vaccine history were positively linked to vaccination intent. CONCLUSION: This study attests the effectiveness of HBT constructs in predicting people's intention to receive a COVID-19 vaccine. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: The results point to the importance of fostering confidence in vaccine safety and countering overoptimism of individual susceptibility to the disease in interventions promoting COVID-19 vaccines uptake.